Arch // Struct Lab

BE-AM 2025: Metal Additive Manufacturing

2025-11-13T00:00:00+00:00

Prof Ornella Iuorio presents at the BE-AM | Built Environment Additive - Manufacturing Symposium and Exhibition at Formnext 2025 in Frankfurt, Smart Additive Joints, a novel metal additively manufactured connection designed for lightweight steel systems enabling the assembly and disassembly of cold-formed steel housing. The innovative joint, developed by Ornella Iuorio, Ehsan Bakhshivand, Alireza Bagheri and Barbara Previtali at Politecnico di Milano addresses the challenges of metal printing on very thin steel surfaces, employing Wire Arc Additive Manufacturing (WAAM) and Laser Metal Deposition (LMD). The exposed prototype shows a novel system that advances automation in the construction industry while responding to the principles of circular construction.

Part of our Advanced Manufacturing track.

ICSA2027: Circularity+

2025-10-16T00:00:00+00:00

From 5-9 July 2027, Politecnico di Milano will proudly host the 7th International Conference on Structures and Architecture (ICSA2027) - the largest conference at the intersection of structural engineering and architectural design.

This major event will be organised with IASA, The International Association of Structures and Architecture and hosted as an interdisciplinary collaboration across three departments at Polimi, headed by AS Lab head Prof Iuorio:

DABC: Department of Architecture, Built Environment and Construction Engineering
DASTU: Department of Architecture and Urban Studies
DICA: Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering

This conference promotes a collaborative future between Structures and Architecture. We invite you to explore the logic of construction in relation to Architectural Design and, recognising the urgent need to address global environmental challenges, we invite you to reflect on Circular+ approaches, exploring how architectural and structural design processes can embed circularity, regenerative strategies, and integrate life cycle thinking, to shape and reshape our built environment.

We invite researchers, practitioners, and innovators to share research, projects, and ideas that advance sustainable, circular, and adaptive architectural practices. Contributions may include experiences and investigations in design methodologies, construction techniques, material innovations, or interdisciplinary approaches that push the boundaries of how structures and architecture are jointly conceived, built, tackled, and maintained.

See the LinkedIn page here and Call for participation

New book: AM Perspectives

2025-09-01T00:00:00+00:00

Following on from the joint W.AMCA 2025 workshop last year, organised between Politecnico di Milano, the University of Minho, Portugal, and the University of Darmstadt, Germany, a book was compiled of the great research being undertaken by PhD students and researchers across the universities. The publication is available completely open access here, and features contributions from Prof Ornella Iuorio, Prof Ingrid Maria Paoletti and Prof Enrico Sergio Mazzucchelli, researchers Sam Wilcock, Emil Korkis and Giacomo Scrinzi, and PhD student Giuseppe Conti at Politecnico di Milano. See also a chapter from our group here!

Synopsis

The pressing challenges of climate change, reduction of available material and skilled labor for construction, have given a big input to the development of advanced manufacturing, declined in the triad of additive manufacturing, subtractive manufacturing and robotic platforms.

Additive Manufacturing (AM) has held its promise of mass customization, from the component scale to full building scale, providing the imagination that each component could be tailored to specific needs without significantly affecting its production costs or time. Today we are witnessing, that while, perhaps, complete dwellings have not been additively manufactured, certainly there have been few houses and neighbourhoods, having their walls fully 3D printed. We have seen them, to be developed in a variety of materials, from concrete, having the largest share, to earthen and bio-based now starting to appear. Bringing to the resurge of the traditional materials, as well opening up to a nearly infinite exploitation of innovative materials, which can be tailored to use organic compounds, to achieve thermal, acoustic and structural performance on demand.

The definition, prediction and assessment of the performance of those advanced manufactured materials, components, buildings and infrastructures is enabling to refine AM and the development of new architectural tectonics. Numerical and Virtual simulations are enabling prediction and testing of manufacturing stages, in use performances, and life cycle assessments to measure innovation versus current sustainable development goals.

Lately, we are also witnessing the manifestation of the (once) utopian dream of having machines, and robots around us building up components, and full structures. How far are we from the Plug-in City envisioned by the Archigram or by the Gramazio & Kohler urban forms resulting from robotic logics rather than human hands? Perhaps, we are still quite distant by their complete realization, but robotic agents are becoming real in the construction realm. From robotic systems assembling components, to platforms automating repetitive tasks, to digital twins sensing the cities, and drones constructing in harsh environments, we are witnessing growing human-robotic interactions.

Therefore, this book presents and discusses upon the latest research in the field of advanced manufacturing for the building realm, simulation for the advancement of customized properties of AM components, and robotic manufacturing of construction systems developed across a vivid network of researchers based in European Universities. We hope this book can stimulate reflection about the current and future trends in construction automation, with a strong emphasis on their architectural quality, forms of tectonics, and achievable performances. We hope some or many of these, research-based innovation will soon show their full application in construction industry!

Full book

Kinetic Harlequin: Milan Design Week 2025

2025-04-21T00:00:00+00:00

Kinetic Harlequin is a Kinetic Sculpture Developed and Presented at Milano Design Week at Fabbrica del Vapore for Metamorphosis by Sam Wilcock and Ornella Iuorio.

The sculputure is an “Architectural Fragment” merging natural materials with robotic actuation, allowing surfaces to shift and morph in real time. Inspired by nature, adaptability incorporates computational control, allowing the system to behave like an organic body, reacting the environmental changes.

Developed at Politecnico di Milano with the support of our researchers and students Emil Korkis, Yuta Shirotani and Anwar Ahsen Qureshi.

W.AMCA 2024

2024-10-10T00:00:00+00:00

On the 7th and 8th of October 2024, our group hosted the Workshop on Additive Manufacturing and Construction Automation 2024. The event, held at the Department of Architecture, Building Engineering and Construction, saw researchers from the University of Minho and University of Darmstadt sharing their expertise on topics including clay 3D printing, design optimisation, robotic assembly and wire-arc additive manufacture.

We also had tours of advanced manufacturing labs here in Milan, alongside guest talks from ABB Robotics and WASP.

Organisers

Ornella Iuorio, Politecnico di Milano
Bruno Figueiredo, University of Minho
Paolo J.S. Cruz, University of Minho
Ulrich Knaack, University of Darmstadt
Alexander Wolf, University of Darmstadt

See the image gallery here

Set in Transition: Venice Biennale of Architecture 2023

2023-05-20T00:00:00+00:00

The Collateral Event of the Biennale di Venezia 2023, “Students as Researchers”, was officially opened. This fantastic collective exhibition was led by the New York Institute of Technology, organised by Maria R. Perbellini, Marcella Del Signore, Alessandro Melis, and Athina Papadopoulou.

We presented “Set in Transition”, a robotically assembled, dry-stack, self-standing shell structure. This project was developed in collaboration between Ornella Iuorio, Sam Wilcock and Mehmet Dogar, and was supported by Politecnico di Milano and the University of Leeds.

Award: 2022 Top 50 Women in Engineering

2022-06-23T00:00:00+00:00

For 2022, the Women’s Engineering Society, in association with The Guardian and Ball Corporation, invited nominations on numerous factors, including their ability to support and combat climate change, work as an advocate for women in STEM, their drive to make a difference within the engineering industry and achieving beyond what would normally be expected.

Even in the current climate, the number and standard of nominations were high, emphasising the exceptional achievements made by women in this field. The WE50 awards were judged by a panel of industry experts.

This year more than ever, female engineers are applying themselves to sustainability and creating a built environment that is kinder to the natural world.

Female engineers are working hard to combat global CO2 emissions by creating products that monitor, capture and reduce carbon emissions, as well as developing energy solutions to decarbonise entire countries.

At the heart of many of the projects featured in this year’s list are those that help us to be more eco-friendly, whether it be infrastructure, transport systems and all types of equipment that help us to be more sustainable.

Award: Professor Ornella Iuorio

Professor Ornella Iuorio was delighted to be named in the list celebrating her work in sustainable architectural engineering and structures.

On hearing she had been named in the top 50 list, Professor Iuorio said: “I feel very honoured that I have been nominated and I am excited that I am among a group of very talented and incredible individuals who are striving for a more sustainable and just future.

“I hope the awards will also inspire other women who want to become engineers and to follow their dreams.”

Sir John Fowler Award

2021-03-10T00:00:00+00:00

Dr Ornella Iuorio’s work in developing innovative modular housing construction, in partnership with ilke Homes, has received the prestigious Institute of Civil Engineers Sir John Fowler Award 2021.

Dr Iuorio’s research has shown how incorporating advanced methodologies for the design of cold-formed steel systems can address challenges in the structural performance of Modular Building Systems. Her findings have improved the safety and sustainability of modular housing construction, while also reducing the cost of materials by 33%.

The research has advanced the UK’s industry agenda: it led to a reduced amount of steel used in construction of the modular houses by 10%, resulting in a £1m annual saving. It also achieved a 10% reduction in labour costs, making a saving of £100,000 per year.

The adoption of Modular Building Systems, also known as Modern Methods of Construction (MMC), is expected to exponentially grow in the construction sector. MMC can have improved energy efficiency, lower cost and relative ease of construction when compared with more traditional construction methods. It has been recognised as a technique that supports solutions to Britain’s housing crisis.

Dr Iuorio, who received with her team the Sir John Fowler Award at the Yorkshire and Humber Annual Awards last week, said:

“The research has massively accelerated the modular housing building process, giving us a structure that is stronger and lighter, and can be assembled much more quickly. This will reduce the carbon footprint of the UK’s modular homes, as well as the cost of materials.

“This project developed an innovative, optimised structural system utilising novel design and manufacturing techniques to significantly improve structural performance, safety and sustainability.

“It delivers huge impacts on industrial capability in Yorkshire, and will result in houses which are sustainable and affordable in Yorkshire and throughout the UK.”

Further information

The ICE Yorkshire and Humber Awards, which takes place annually, showcases the collective and individual achievements of civil engineers.

Awards are made for civil engineering projects in the Yorkshire and Humber region in recognition of achievement, excellence or innovation in civil engineering, taking into account factors such as value and impact on society, sustainability, health safety and welfare, quality of design, innovation and best practice, difficulty and response, diversity and inclusion, and collaboration and excellence in delivery.

Prefabs in the North of England: Technological, Environmental and Social Innovations

2019-07-02T00:00:00+00:00

Advances in digital technology have inaugurated a ‘fourth industrial revolution’, enabling, inter alia, the growth of ‘offsite’ housing construction in advanced economies. This productive transformation seems to be opening up new opportunities for styles of living, ownership, place-making and manufacturing that are more sustainable, democratic and bespoke. However, the full potential of this transformation is not yet clear nor how it will interact with—in the UK context—ongoing crises in housing provision rooted in an increasingly financialised and critically unbalanced national economy, timid state housing policies and a longstanding cultural preoccupation with mortgaged ‘bricks and mortar’ housing. In this paper, we report on an ongoing mixed method project interrogating the technological, environmental and social implications of the emergence of offsite housing construction in the UK. To a degree, we situate this interrogation in the Northern English region of Yorkshire, an emerging focal point of the growing offsite construction industry in the UK but an area afflicted by entrenched, post-industrial economic imbalances. The results show that offsite house engineers, designers and builders are innovatively embracing digital methods, a low carbon agenda and new approaches to place-making but that they have had little role, so far, in resolving the deeper structural problems affecting housing production in the UK, bringing the sustainability of their innovation into question.

Numerical analysis and experimental characterisation of brick masonry

2020-04-02T00:00:00+00:00

Simulating the mechanical behaviour of masonry structures by using numerical analysis is still a complex subject because the process is hindered by little knowledge of the properties of masonry constituents and the interface. In particular, the definition of mechanical properties of masonry components is a key issue when finite element analysis is adopted for the prediction of the mechanical behaviour of masonry walls under accidental and exceptional loads. In an attempt to develop a detailed micro-modelling of brick masonry under compression, where the brick unit, mortar and brick-mortar interface are defined by their corresponding mechanical properties obtained through experimental testing, this work presents experimental tests on brick units, mortar and small masonry cubic specimens. Hence, a detailed micro-modelling of brick masonry cubic specimen is developed in ABAQUS. The numerical model is calibrated and validated based on the results obtained from the experimental tests on masonry cubic specimens. The results show that the numerical model is able to predict the mechanical behaviour of the masonry specimen with 95% accuracy in terms of compressive strength.

Experimental investigation into the performance of cold-formed steel walls sheathed with OSB and cement-based panels

2021-09-01T00:00:00+00:00

Cold-formed steel (CFS) structures are developing fast in both seismic and not seismic areas for their high degree of prefabrication, high structural performance and the good energy performance. In the last decades, many research groups around the world have focused on the analysis of seismic behaviour of CFS structures and the development of design procedures that still need to find their full implementation in many international codes, first of all in the Eurocode. Therefore, the development of CFS system still requires, very often, the adoption of large experimental testing, in particular, when sheathing braced design methodologies are applied. This paper presents, for the first time, the in-plane tests of CFS walls sheathed on one side with oriented strand boards (OSB) and cement based panels (CP). In particular, a set of two full scale tests of ledger walls having 2400mm width and 2926mm height, sheathed with OSB3 and CP, and a set of two tests on ledger walls having dimensions (2400mmm x 2974mm) sheathed with OSB3 panels are presented and discussed. The tests have been carried out in accordance to the BS EN 594:1996. The results confirm in agreement with literature studies that the collapse is governed by the failure of the screws between panels and steel profiles. And, more importantly it shows that, when both OSB and CP are present the collapse is governed by the failure of the screws between cement panels and steel profiles. When comparing the two sets of walls those sheathed only with OSB panels have lateral resistance which is about 1.5 time higher than when also CP are present.

Ecuadorian housing resettlements five years after the 2016 earthquake: A critical analysis

2021-09-10T00:00:00+00:00

In the past decades, earthquakes have left millions of people without homes across the world. Safe housing is crucial for the long-term wellbeing of the affected population. This article analyses the Ecuadorian housing reconstruction developed after the 7.8 magnitude 2016 earthquake, taking as case study the cities of Portoviejo, Manta, Bahía de Caráquez and Pedernales, located in the Manabí province, which jointly accommodate more than 90% of the resettlements built by the central government.

The research aims to understand the implications of the top-down management reconstruction process and its impacts, five years after the earthquake, using as critical lens the inhabitants, the UN-Habitat principles for adequate housing and the “Build Back Better” principles of the Sendai Framework for post-disaster reconstruction. The work combines policy review, risk spatial analysis, semi-structured interviews, and constructive and architectural analysis. The article is the outcome of a transdisciplinary multi-scalar approach that analyses key long-term social implications, the quality and the spatial adaptations of the built environment. It finally offers some crucial recommendations for the long-term wellbeing of post-disaster housing strategies.

Future scenarios for housing (re)settlements in Ecuador

2022-05-25T00:00:00+00:00

Post-earthquake (re)settlements are too often the results of political decisions, driven by the urgency of housing survivors in emergency. There is very limited evidence of strategic decisions made for the long-term wellbeing of the displaced communities. This has certainly been the case, for the post-earthquake reconstructions developed in the aftermath of the 2016 Muisne earthquake in Ecuador. Previous research has indeed demonstrated, through qualitative empirical research, the failure of the developed resettlements from both a technical and a social perspective. This paper aims to re-think the way to conceive (re)settlements with the aim to co-produce with local experts and inhabitants possible future scenarios. A first pilot case, that adopts design solutions at the urban and housing unit level, which are strongly connected to the local geographic and cultural context, is discussed. This paper presents and discusses the design evolution of the proposed pilot case, posing the attention to the urban development and the housing design, articulated imagining the (re)settlement as a new neighbourhood of the city, with a combination of private and public spaces, that will grow and be fully integrated to the consolidated city as population grow.

Numerical investigation into the performance of cold-formed steel framed shear walls with openings under in-plane lateral loads

2022-06-01T00:00:00+00:00

Recently, there has been a resurgence in the adoption of lightweight cold-formed steel (CFS) profiles as structural elements in low- to mid-rise modular construction. Typically, openings for doors and windows are ever-present in the front and rear elevations where shear walls find their optimal position to ensure lateral stability in CFS modular structures. These architectural design features translate into reduced areas for lateral load resistance throughout the structure. This paper discusses the performance of CFS framed shear walls with openings under lateral loads through experimental tests and numerical simulations. Overall, three shear wall typologies were designed for force transfer around opening (FTAO) and tested under monotonic lateral loads (nine tests in total). An advanced finite element analysis (FEA) modelling protocol was elaborated to simulate the lateral behaviour of the tested walls as well as to interpret the physical tests. Evaluation of the numerical and experimental test results validated the FEA modelling protocol that demonstrated to be reliable in predicting the strength and stiffness as well as failure modes of CFS framed shear walls with openings subjected to lateral loads. The effects of sheathing-to-CFS screw spacing, the size and number of openings as well as the geometry of sheathing panels on the lateral behaviour of CFS framed shear walls were scrutinized. Subsequently, load-path mappings from the developed modelling protocol enabled the analysis of the flow of the in-plane lateral loads from the sheathing-to-CFS screw level into the wall system level where insight into a more efficient lateral design of CFS framed shear walls with openings have been highlighted. The obtained results shed light on the conservative nature of the AISI S400-15 design provisions for Type II shear walls and that of the perforated design methods available in the literature.

Automated robotics agents for assembly-aware design of shells

2022-07-08T00:00:00+00:00

Form-finding processes for shell structures generates geometric designs which are potentially structurally stable once fully constructed without external supports. The form-found solutions are provided as is, and for segmented shell structures a suitable assembly sequence is not guaranteed to be locally stable at each stage. Assembly problems have been studied geometrically in the field of shell construction. But, as the use of robotics in construction environments is set to increase over the coming decade, then the application of robotics to construction of shell structures requires the study of assembly sequences and stability when robotic arms are adopted. By applying assembly concepts of Non-Directional Blocking Graphs and robot workspace analysis to results of form-finding in parametric design environments, this work presents early-stage research into augmenting the shell design process with assembly feasibility metrics. A workflow is demonstrated for applying robotic workspace data to shell design and generating an assembly plan, with initial robot planning proposed.

Design for de-construction of lightweight infill wall systems

2022-10-01T00:00:00+00:00

This paper discusses the design for de-construction of lightweight infill wall systems. Thepaper reports the deconstruction and reassembly processes of a sample light steel frame skeleton. Each of thesteel members in the frame skeleton was connected by screws, which were removed by a screwdriver. Theobservations and findings during the deconstruction and re-assembly processes are presented. The authorsobserved that the screws in the sample steel frame were safely removed, and the members were re-assembledwithout causing any damage. The authors compared the stiffness of the frames before and after the deconstruction and observed that there was no change in the stiffness in the frame.

Investigation of the effect of modular construction details on the lateral behaviour of cold-formed steel framed shear walls

2022-10-01T00:00:00+00:00

This paper investigates the effect of modular construction details on laterally-loaded cold-formed steel (CFS) framed shear walls sheathed with wood- and cement-based panels by means of finite-element (FE) analyses. Shell FE-based models have been developed in ABAQUS with the aim of accurately capturing the behaviour, strength and stiffness as well as the corresponding failure modes of CFS framed shear walls subjected to monotonic lateral load (i.e., wind). User-defined element subroutines were adopted for precise modelling of sheathing-to-CFS screws shear behaviour. The proposed modelling protocol is validated using experimental test results, where an acceptable concordance (4% difference) has been achieved. Subsequently, the effect of modular construction details, which go beyond the scope of the current lateral design provisions (AISI S400), on the lateral behaviour of CFS framed shear walls is assessed. In particular, this paper investigates the impact of: (i) floor and ceiling ledger beams on the interior face of the shear wall, (ii) sheathing boards having different sizes from the overall shear wall and thus the presence of both vertical and horizontal seams, (iii) cement particle boards at the bottom stripe of the shear wall and (iv) different screw spacing in the top and bottom stripes from the middle part of the shear wall. The key parameters, which have most affected the lateral behaviour, were identified, and based on that, rules have been established for optimizing the screws pattern and sheathings layout efficacy in the above-described lateral load resisting system. The obtained results shed light on the capability of the developed modelling protocol to be used as a virtual test bench, particularly in offsite mass production and manufacture (DfMA), for the development of a new CFS framed wall system for lateral stability of lightweight modular houses.

Life Cycle Analysis of Innovative Technologies: Cold Formed Steel System and Cross Laminated Timber

2023-01-04T00:00:00+00:00

Reducing the embodied and operational energy of buildings is a key priority for construction and real estate sectors. It is essential to prioritize materials and construction technologies with low carbon footprints for the design of new buildings. Off-site constructions systems are claimed to have the potential to deliver a low carbon build environment, but at present there are a lack of data about their real environmental impacts. This paper sheds lights on the environmental performance of two offsite technologies: cold formed steel and cross laminated timber. Specifically, the environmental impacts of a CFS technology are discussed according to six standard impact categories, which includes the global warming potential and the total use of primary energy. The study is based on a detailed cradle to gate life cycle analysis of a real case study, and discusses the impacts of both structural and non-structural components of CFS constructions. As a useful frame of reference, this work compares the environmental impacts of 1 m2 of walls and floors of CFS technology with those of cross laminated timber, which is spreading as innovative off-site technology for the development of nearly zero energy buildings, and a conventional reinforced masonry technology, which is largely adopted in the Italian construction sector. The paper concludes with the necessity to optimize structural systems to reduce the overall embodied carbon impacts.

Can we reuse plasterboards?

2023-06-01T00:00:00+00:00

Gypsum turns plaster when it is dehydrated, and it returns to gypsum when it is hydrated. Because of this, gypsum is 100 % recyclable in theory. However, in reality, only 4% (in mass) of the plasterboard is from recycled plasterboard. This is because of the substances, other than fresh gypsum from quarries, to make plasterboard, and the current demolition methods that cause material contamination. The current practice of manufacturing, construc-tion, and deconstruction of plasterboard necessitates significant resource extraction and carbon emissions, and the situation is unlikely to change in the foreseeable future. Reusing, instead of recycling, construction material is effective in reducing resource extraction and carbon emis-sions, however, it has not been investigated at all for plasterboard. Thus, this paper explores the potential and feasibility of reusing plasterboard used for exterior infill walls, which is made of plasterboards and an increasingly used façade construction method in the UK.

The Role of Parametric Design in the Robotic Assembly of Dry-Constructed Shell Structures

2023-10-31T00:00:00+00:00

Architecture is going through major changes as automation in construction is radically transforming standard processing technologies and could lead, in the long-term, to disruptive technologies such as 3D-printing and robotics being applied to improve construction processes. This paper describes the adoption of a parametric approach in the design, fabrication, and assembly of dry-constructed, lightweight, wooden shell structures.The design of the structure in a parametric environment simplifies the process of running multiple kinematic simulations of the construction sequence. These simulations are used to determine the feasibility of each simulated sequence and detect collisions and errors in the robotic arm path. The instructions from the simulation stage are passed through a series of steps to a single collaborative robotic arm that assembles the structure with minimum human intervention. The simulated tests are carried out using a single KUKA lbr iiwa R800 robotic arm equipped with a 2-finger parallel jaw gripper. The complexity of the design requires a multi-disciplinary effort in the development of suitable systems. This research aims to show the potential that robotics and 3D printing could offer in terms of enabling the adoption of more complex and efficient free-form shell structures with decreased need for formwork and temporary supports.

Methodology for Stability Assessment of Discretised Shell Structures During Robotic Assembly

2023-10-31T00:00:00+00:00

Timber structure design can reduce embodied carbon for large span systems, by reducing material usage. The work in this paper presents the assessment of wood panel shell structures, focusing on the use of traditional joinery styles to produce self-supported structures. Key design criteria are to minimise external scaffolding to reduce falsework waste, to allow dry stacking without adhesive between panels for de-construction, and to be manufactured and assembled using digital processes. Focusing on a particular shell geometry, selected for its theoretical performance, a procedure is outlined for the definition of integral joints between planar panels. By modelling deflection using the coupled rigid-block analysis (CRA), different joint styles are assessed during and post-assembly, to compare their suitability and demonstrate the mitigation of falsework. Panels are both 3D printed and built as stacked plywood, validating the utility of CRA and finding the effect of scale to demonstrate its use as a structural design tool for intermediate assembly stages.

Disassembly and Reuse of Structural Members in Steel-Framed Buildings: State-of-the-Art Review of Connection Systems and Future Research Trends

2023-12-01T00:00:00+00:00

Reducing carbon emissions in the construction sector is essential in a period of climate emergency. Disassembly and reuse of structural members are considered to reduce the carbon emissions from the construction and deconstruction of buildings. In this context, it is important to review the current state of the art to provide a framework for the development of future structural systems that can enable the easy disassembly and reuse of steel-framed buildings. This paper (1) presents a review of more than 100 documents to discuss the feasibility of disassembly and reuse of structural members; (2) develops detailed schematic illustrations to explain the design concepts and the underlying mechanics governing the behavior of demountable connections; (3) sheds lights on the technical and design challenges to implement disassembly and reuse of the structural members; and (4) defines future research needs to facilitate the disassembly and reuse of the structural members.

Using bolted connections for the construction, de-construction and reuse of lightweight exterior infill walls: Experimental study

2024-03-28T00:00:00+00:00

Bolted connections offer advantages in terms of disassembly and reusability, potentially replacing conventional connections like screws, welds, or chemical bonds. This research investigates the behaviour of bolted connections between lightweight exterior infill walls and beams of primary structural members that are conventionally connected using screws. Although previous studies have investigated bolted connections in different structural members, understanding of the behaviours of these specific connections remains limited. The connections between infill walls and steel beams primarily experience shear loads under serviceability conditions. Therefore, an experimental study was conducted to gain insight into their shear behaviour. The obtained experimental results were analysed using existing predictive equations from design standards that are used across European, North American and Oceanian countries, to identify the most suitable equations for designing such connections.

Design for deconstruction through digital fabrication of thin spatial systems

2024-05-10T00:00:00+00:00

Spatial systems like shells, arches and shelters can often be used as temporary structures to accommodate short to medium expositions, events, or emergencies. This has historically allowed them to be designed for multiple uses. Recent advancements in computer graphics, algorithmic design, and advanced manufacturing have accelerated their development and opened new scope for applications, by exploiting new capabilities and opportunities for material-efficient designs and constructions. The authors aim to develop combined systems approaches to the design of resilient, de-constructible constructions for the built environment. This work presents the recent advancements in the development of discrete shell systems developed at the AS_Lab between the Politecnico di Milan and the University of Leeds, using biogenic materials such as wood which are inherently sustainable. Coupling geometry design and segmentation with ad-hoc connection systems, demountable systems have been developed, which are materially efficient, digitally designed, and fabricated, and can, in some instances, be robotically assembled. The study presents the conceptual design and fabrication of three prototypes, which have been realized to accelerate the transition to industry 4.0 while posing the focus on a circular future.

Experimental Study on the Feasibility of Disassembling and Reusing Lightweight Façade Wall Systems

2024-05-10T00:00:00+00:00

This paper presents experimental investigations into the feasibility of disassembling and reusing exterior lightweight infill walls. The work stems as necessary steps towards the advancement of circular economy principles in future constructions. The experiment employed the single-shear test method commonly used to assess the shear strength of steel connections. The test samples consisted of cold-formed steel plates attached to hot-rolled steel plates, connected by screws. The cold-formed steel plate represents the track, a component of exterior lightweight infill walls, while the hot-rolled steel plate represents the beams of the primary structural frame. In total, twenty-one specimens were made: nine were tested after screwing, nine were tested after unscrewing and re-screwing, and three were tested after unscrewing, re-screwing, unscrewing, and re-screwing. The unscrewing step demonstrates the disassembly of the infill walls, while the re-screwing demonstrates their reuse. The experimental results revealed that the average peak strengths of the samples with different connections exhibited negligible differences. This can be attributed to the interaction between the screws and the connected cold-formed steel and hot-rolled steel plates, a mechanism further discussed in this paper. The test outcomes imply that exterior lightweight infill walls can be disassembled from the primary structural frame’s beams after the infill walls’ service life, and subsequently reused in the construction of other exterior lightweight infill walls. The study also demonstrated that more specimens should be tested to confirm the observation.

Gamification Approaches and Assessment Methodologies for Occupants’ Energy Behavior Change in Buildings: A Systematic Review

2024-05-22T00:00:00+00:00

With the trend of achieving both energy efficiency in buildings and occupants’ comfort, gamification strategies have started to be developed and applied as incentive mechanisms to increase social interaction and facilitate human energy behavior transformation. In this article, 306 published papers are reviewed, and 21 studies are identified to determine the challenges and potential for the development of gamification strategies to improve building energy efficiency. Specifically, this work reviews the implementation techniques of gamification and methods to assess the impact of gamification mechanisms on human energy behavior changes. This analysis demonstrates that, firstly, the choice of an optimal gamification implementation method should be inherently attuned to the distinct characteristics of the building type and its occupants. Secondly, it is imperative to strike a judicious balance between extrinsic and intrinsic motivations, in which customization of gamification design elements are based on users’ unique personality traits and preferences, to properly tailor gamification mechanisms. Thirdly, integrating a fusion of quantification of energy savings and qualitative interpretation of user behaviors to improve the energy efficiency in buildings is essential for a more holistic understanding of the impact of gamification on users’ energy-related behavior change. The findings indicate that gamification techniques can enable the effective reduction of energy consumption in buildings.

A New Building Information Modelling-Based Approach to Automate Recyclability Rate Calculations for Buildings

2024-05-24T00:00:00+00:00

To address environmental challenges, the Architecture, Engineering, Construction, and Operations (AECO) industry, which is known for its high resource consumption and waste production, needs to switch to a circular economy (CE). This approach focuses on reducing, recycling, and reusing materials to narrow, slow, and close material loops. However, one of the main problems which the AECO industry is still facing is the lack of common, standardized, and automated procedures to consider the recyclability and presence of hazardous materials. To address this problem, this study focuses on extending the recyclability rate from the material to building scale, considering the presence of hazardous materials based on the European Waste Catalogue (EWC), hence defining a new KPI. It adopts Building Information Modelling (BIM) and Industry Foundation Classes (IFCs) and integrates them with bespoke programming in Python to develop a standardized and automated procedure that complies with Italian regulations. The new KPI will help clients and designers to rate the overall recyclability of a building and to choose the best combination of materials and components. The procedure includes data acquisition, transmission, and data/model integration, resulting in practical and trackable measures that could be globally scalable. Scenario analyses are also developed to consider the impact of maintenance attitude on waste production.

Improving Circularity in Construction Through a BIM-Based Waste Management Framework

2024-06-01T00:00:00+00:00

The Architecture, Engineering, and Construction (AEC) industry, known for its significant resource consumption and waste production, requires a shift to a Circular Economy (CE) to address environmental challenges, focusing on reducing, recycling, and reusing materials to narrow, slow, and close material loops. The impact of CE in the AEC industry is directly associated with the existing buildings’ potential to be a source of raw materials for future construction projects. The waste management process necessitates detailed information on material composition, connections, availability, future uses, and quality. Urban Mining, facilitated by digital technologies and Industry 4.0 solutions, aims to provide answers to the abovementioned questions. This study, focusing on the Italian building sector, utilizes BIM and IFC platforms to establish a standardized procedure aligned with Italian regulations. The procedure encompasses data acquisition, transmission, integration, and application, resulting in practical and trackable measures stored in IFC files. Notably, this procedure is scalable globally. The results of this study are important from a managerial point of view to have a comprehensive and standardized procedure, improving waste management and decreasing the environmental impacts of the construction sector. Moreover, it contributes to enhancing the cost-benefit efficiency of the industry through enhancing circularity.

Integrating R-funicularity, local stability and inter-panel constraint assessment for discrete timber shell construction design

2024-06-01T00:00:00+00:00

Timber shell structures are material efficient over large spans, and environmentally friendly due to the renewable nature of the material. In realising such structures, digital fabrication and assembly techniques provide new opportunities for the accurate conversion of complex digital designs into real components, allowing the generation of interlocking shell forms. Supporting falsework structures for shell construction present issues as a high waste factor in their assembly, due to their often single-use, and highly custom nature. Additionally, such segmented shells often rely on adhesives or additional fixings to constrain parts, reducing the potential for disassembly and reuse. This work presents a design approach, developed to demonstrate the use of dovetail style integral joints for maintaining structural stability through the assembly process, mitigating the need for falsework. The proposed approach is based on making use of stability assessments, funicularity measures and geometrical analysis of part interfaces to understand the behaviour of designed structures in an assembled state, during assembly, and how parts may be inserted into each other. Relaxed funicularity of full shell designs is quantified to assess fully assembled loading mechanisms, whereas the coupled rigid-block analysis (CRA) is used to assess the stability during assembly and is validated by comparison to physical models. Using the part-part interface geometry information and panel topology, inter-panel constraints are also assessed for both dovetail and finger joints. The developed interlocking joints are shown to aid funicularity by improving tensile capacity. Comparisons are made between inter-panel constraints and stability analysis data to show the relationship between interface geometry and stability. Together, these three techniques are shown to provide complementary early-stage design feedback to aid in generating feasible, discrete shell constructions.

Systematic review of experimental testing of masonry walls' failure: Comparative analysis and future directions

2024-06-14T00:00:00+00:00

The assessment of unreinforced masonry (URM) walls often involves experimental characterisation of their in-plane (IP) and out-of-plane (OOP) failure. While IP and OOP testing of URM walls is common, standardised testing methods are lacking, resulting in varied approaches. This study thus presents a systematic review of 54 selected articles to examine different masonry testing procedures through an analysis of specimen characterisation, testing arrangements, loading rate and failure patterns across various studies. The review highlights disparities in experimental approaches and stresses the need for uniform testing procedures or standardisation protocol to ensure consistency and reliability. Significantly, the review identifies a tendency to overlook real-world scenarios in testing, emphasising the importance of addressing this gap for comprehensive assessment of masonry walls. The study recommends further experimental studies on the effect of openings on walls, and the interaction between masonry walls and the slabs/connections with other walls/ring beams to enrich masonry behaviour understanding through both experimental and numerical approaches.

Determining the carbon footprint reduction of reusing lightweight exterior infill walls: A case study of a school building in the United Kingdom

2024-09-01T00:00:00+00:00

The global construction sector consumes 40 billion tonnes of raw materials and is responsible for considerable CO2 emissions. With growing awareness of its environmental impact, the construction sector is looking to transition from a linear economy “take-make-waste” scenario towards more circular economy principles. Lightweight exterior infill walls are built between floors of primary structural frames to provide building façades. The design of these components is usually based on the current linear economic model. While lightweight exterior infill walls are becoming increasingly common in building construction in the UK, no studies have investigated the potential environmental benefits of designing them with circularity in mind. This means there’s a lack of research on both the carbon footprint of these walls and the potential environmental benefits of reusing them. Thus, this article assesses the significance of the carbon emissions from lightweight exterior infill walls and examines whether there is any carbon reduction when lightweight exterior infill walls are demounted from the building frames and reused. This paper first examines the construction process of lightweight exterior infill walls and explores the opportunity to demount and reuse them. Then, the environmental impacts of the lightweight exterior infill walls are analysed using a lifecycle assessment framework. Sensitivity and uncertainty analyses are also conducted. The results demonstrate that (i) the embodied carbon of the lightweight exterior infill walls over their lifecycle represents approximately 22% of the embodied carbon of the entire building, and (ii) the disassembly and reuse of infill walls can reduce a building’s embodied carbon over its typical lifetime by about 6% compared to the linear scenario where the walls were not reused.

Methodology for Improving Manufacturing and Assembly of Lightweight Prefab Systems

2024-10-02T00:00:00+00:00

The increasing adoption of prefabrication in the Global North reflects a response to the urgent demand for safe and affordable housing. This demand is compounded by the necessity to meet contemporary standards for aesthetic quality, structural safety, and energy performance, all within the context of the current climate and safety challenges. Prefabrication, underpinned by the principles of Design for Manufacturing and Assembly (DfMA), offers a pathway toward modernizing construction practices. Specifically, lightweight steel profile technologies, particularly suited for low- and mid-rise buildings, offer an efficient solution to meet these evolving demands. However, to achieve widespread adoption, further optimization is necessary. The reduction of material use, fabrication waste, and production time, alongside cost reduction, will be critical in aligning prefabrication technologies with sustainable development goals. This paper presents an eight-step methodology in which manufacturing and assembling strategies are considered since product development and according to which materials and components are selected, prototyped, and tested to optimize both mechanical and environmental performance. The methodology has been validated through an academic and industrial venture that aimed to optimize a lightweight cold-formed steel volumetric system for housing applications. The study demonstrated to achieve a system that fully met the structural requirements while also minimizing the use of material, waste, and production time. In doing so, this work contributes to a broader effort to modernize construction practices and address the dual imperatives of safety and climate resilience.

Architectural Engineering: Engineering Approaches for the Design for Manufacturing and Assembly for the Housing Sector

2024-11-01T00:00:00+00:00

Prefabrication is spreading in the Global North due to the necessity to build, in a short time, a large volume of new housing for an exponentially growing global population, while at the same time achieving high standards in terms of aesthetic, structural safety, and energy performance. Design for manufacturing and assembly is at the base of prefabrication. Among the variety of available prefab technologies, those based on lightweight steel profiles are particularly well suited for low and mid-rise housing. Although this technology is spreading, for it to be applied at a large-scale, it still requires to be optimized to reduce the amount of material and fabrication waste, lower fabrication time, and reduce costs. The optimization requires understanding and improvement of the mechanical behavior. It is worth considering that the structure’s cost can reach up to 20% of the total expenditure and its associated embodied carbon can make up as much as 40% of the overall construction’s embodied carbon. Therefore, favouring a composite system that can also facilitate achieving good energy performances with lower embodied carbon is paramount. In this framework, this paper presents the results of an interdisciplinary international research project aiming to optimize a housing system’s mechanical and environmental performance for mass production. It presents the experimental objectives and results and the impacts that design decisions have made on the environmental footprint of the developed system. The presented interdisciplinary experimental approach, which is characteristic of architectural engineering, could be used in the future for the development of further innovative systems.

From Mass Prefab to Mass Customization: Modern Methods of Constructions from Experimentation to Manufacturing

2025-01-01T00:00:00+00:00

This book provides an overview of the latest innovations in prefabrication. It analyzes how digital, material, and process innovations are transforming the mass prefabrication of homes, schools, and offices into mass customization. It provides an understanding of available manufacturing processes, including distributed ownership of manufacturing, platform approaches, and robotics. It discusses how the integration of cutting-edge advanced construction techniques, coupled with robotic manufacturing and assembly from the earliest stages of building system design, has the potential to unlock new formal and technical paradigms.

Investigating the impact of prefab in the context of climate emergency, the book analyzes the capacity and shortfall in delivering net zero emissions. It discusses the opportunities that Modern Methods of Construction provide to enable the transition towards circular constructions, from reuse to retrofitting. Including the users’ experience, it demonstrates the importance of developing methodologies for capturing users’ occupancy evaluation, as a means for understanding real performances, benchmarking indicators, and tuning systems to target the long-term well-being of the occupants.

Referring to a plethora of emblematic cases, this work demonstrates the importance of investing in research and development to optimize construction systems, reduce material use, facilitate lean construction, advance mechanical and environmental performances, and move toward circular systems to close the loop.

This book is aimed at practitioners, architects, technologists, researchers, and students in architectural engineering.

Robotic manipulators as advanced manufacturing agents for laser-cut construction systems

2025-01-08T00:00:00+00:00

Robotic manipulators are transforming advanced manufacturing by allowing for the precise manufacture of intricate geometries and the direct transfer of digital data to physical materials. Recent work in the Architecture and Structures Lab (ASLab) of Politecnico di Milano has explored how these technologies can be integrated into laser-cut construction systems, particularly into workflows that connect digital design with robotic assembly. A series of methods are described to optimise designs for handling by manipulator arms, employing reach-ability analyses and assembly sequencing to ensure that construction is feasible. The stability of structures during scaffold-free assembly has been verified using R-funicularity and Coupled Rigid-Block analysis , with the goal to minimize reliance on temporary scaffolding during robotic assembly. Online control systems have been explored to improve on more widespread offline planners, utilizing fiducial markers and point cloud data to improve accuracy and robustness of automation. These workflows significantly enhance the fabrication and assembly of interlocking panelised structures, allowing for precise placement and a reduction in errors as well as providing early-stage design feedback. A case study with laser-cut timber sheets demonstrates cost-effective manufacture of contour crafted panels and their robotic assembly. This research pushes forward the integration of online planning for robotics in manufacture, providing a scalable workflow for automated assembly. With this, it is shown that through incorporating sensor feedback it is possible to improve manufacturing process precision and lessen the need for manual calibration.

See a post on the full book here!

Tool-free connection system for robotic assembly of lightweight shell systems

2025-01-08T00:00:00+00:00

Robotic assembly of shell systems requires rethinking about how shell components are connected together. This research proposes a new standardized connection system for single curvature panelised systems. A triad connection at the vertices of a hexagonally tessellated structure has three independent variables, representing the three angles of the adjacent panels. The combinations of the different variables in a single shell structure produces hundreds of solutions where each solution is an independent connection. The connection system proposed solves this problem by having three articulating connecting fingers around a central hub. This connection system relies on a parametric environment and adapts to a variety of shell geometries and curvatures. The parameters of the design dictate the joint position and only reflect on the design of the panels.

This type of standardized connection offers flexibility in the design of the structure, as well as being suitable for repurposing and use in other projects. The connections are designed for 3D printing “in-place” to reduce assembly and post-processing. The nature of this design makes it inherently easy to adjust for robotic assembly by changing the central hub features for easier manipulation by a robotic gripper. The validity of this solution is assessed in this work through tensile testing.

See a post on the full book here!

Kinetic Harlequin: an interactive kinetic sculpture simulating nature through discrete mechanisms

2025-04-20T00:00:00+00:00

Contemporary architecture is evolving toward dynamic forms inspired by nature. Kinetic, interactive structures—integrating adaptive materials and robotic actuators—behave like living ecosystems, responding in real time to environmental and human stimuli. An experimental sculpture made of wood and motors, controlled via tablet, simulates organic fabrics and generates sound based on movement. Inspired by Harlequin, it blends technology and theatricality, proposing a living, performative architecture deeply connected to its context, where art, engineering, and culture intertwine.

Towards automating the workflow for design, manufacturing, and assembly process feedback of discrete panel structures

2025-06-23T00:00:00+00:00

While computer aided design software allows for rapid exploration of architectural forms, transferring these designs to machinery for digital fabrication and assembly processes is often manual. This paper outlines steps to automate digital fabrication and monitor assembly processes for thin structural panels, aiming to integrate these tools into the designer’s workflow. Much of the current state of the art focuses on unidirectional data flow from design to manufacture, with little capability for process monitoring in assembly. In this work, laser cutting has been utilised with a stacked contour technique, to realise complex 3D geometries from planar sheets at low-cost, and the methods for automating slicing and placement of reference dowels are described. With regards to assembly, panels are designed to be handled by a robot manipulator arm using readily sourced timber dowels and custom robot end-effectors; towards this end, a bidirectional connection between design software and sensor data is described, and results are presented on experiments with Apriltag fiducial tags cut into wood with which to get process feedback through cameras. Using this sensor data, panel poses can be estimated, and results on Apriltag pose feedback with a set of test panels are reported. A prototype of a thin dry stacked panel structure has been developed and assembled as a case study into the manufacture process, and to demonstrate the adaptive robotic planning opportunity provided in integrating live sensor data into parametric CAD software. As-designed panel poses are compared to real pose data, and additionally to pointcloud data suggesting space for further development. Through these integrations into the design process, this research aims to contribute to the capabilities of the architecture engineering and construction (AEC) sector, to streamline the use of modern fabrication and robotics hardware for disassemblable systems.

BIM-based application of level(s) for circular economy: Recyclability case study

2025-06-23T00:00:00+00:00

The Architecture, Engineering, Construction, and Operation (AECO) industry significantly contributes to global material consumption and waste generation. Transitioning towards Circular Economy (CE) to reduce, recycle, and reuse building materials is a necessity. However, this procedure is also facing the challenge of data fragmentation due to complexity of the building process which necessitates a standardized and common procedure. Level(s) is acting as framework to develop as a common language in Europe. This study focuses on addressing data fragmentation challenge in CE, by integrating digital technologies with Level(s) to facilitate the creation of Bills of Quantities (BoQ) and Bills of Materials (BoM). Applying Building Information Modelling (BIM) and Industry Foundation Classes (IFC) on an Italian residential building, a methodology is proposed for Construction and Demolition Waste (C&DW) management and building recyclability calculation. The results offer practical and scalable solutions for improving waste management, reducing environmental impacts, and improving Level(s) application in construction.

Information Requirements and Critical Assessment of Level(s) Integrated with Level of Information Need (LOIN)

2025-07-17T00:00:00+00:00

The Architecture, Engineering, Construction, and Operation (AECO) sector needs to shift from linear to Circular Economy to address environmental challenges and promote sustainability. This study critically assesses the Level(s) framework through two-part methodology: (1) procedural analysis of Macro-Objective 2 (“resource efficient and circular material life cycle”) and its indicators, and (2) a simplified numerical case-study. It integrates the Level of Information Need (LOIN) to define Information Requirements revealing gaps in automation and precision. Findings highlight the need for digital tools and standardized data flows to improve circularity assessments. The study provides actionable insights for refining Level(s) implementation and stakeholder collaboration.

Local Materials, Global Impact: Bamboo for Climate and Seismic Resilient Neighbourhoods in Latin America

2025-11-01T00:00:00+00:00

The increasing frequency and intensity of climate-related and seismic events globally call for innovative, resilient approaches to social housing development. This study explores the potential of bamboo, as an abundant, locally available, rapidly renewable, and structurally resilient biobased material, to serve as the foundation for climate-adapting neighbourhood’s creation in social housing resettlements in the coastal region of Manabí, Ecuador. By adopting a cross-sectoral collaboration approach, and integrating insights from architecture, materials science, structural engineering, and human geography, a multi-domain approach is proposed. This was defined through the engagement with a broad range of stakeholders, including local architects, international firms, local risk managers and NGOs. The proposed approach demonstrates that bamboo is a practical and adaptable solution for housing projects creation or adaptation, not only enhancing structural resilience, but also reinforcing social cohesion and local empowerment in vulnerable Latin American neighbourhoods. The utilisation of bamboo also addresses simultaneously environmental, economic, and social challenges, fostering the growth of communities, which are most affected by such hazards, while respecting ecological sustainability goals. The findings reported here are the result of an international interdisciplinary research programme aiming to define strategies for development of housing and neighbourhood for wellbeing, so that they are structurally resilient, low-carbon, and allow sustainable growth of communities affected by multiple hazards in Latin America.

Shape optimisation of metal additive manufacturing connections in lightweight steel structures

2026-02-28T00:00:00+00:00

The application of metal additive manufacturing (AM) to connections in lightweight side framing structure is explored. Two connection concepts are considered, namely key-wheel (KW) and gear-wheel (GW) connections. To identify the optimal wheel geometries for the proposed KW and GW connections, a genetic algorithm with multiple-objectives optimisation framework was employed. The optimised parameters included wheel radius R, tooth number n, along with other geometrical wheel parameters. The optimisation objectives were to maximise the initial rotational stiffness, yield strength and peak strength directly for the connections with Laser Metal Deposition (LMD) process, while an additional constraint of normalising these objectives with respect to material use was introduced for the connection with Wire Arc Additive Manufacturing (WAAM) process. The optimisation results suggest a wheel shape with 12 elongated teeth for the KW connection, and a shallow-tooth wheel shape for the GW connection. The maximum joist deflections of the frame-level analysis are reduced by 14%-20% when employing the optimised connections, while the normalised initial stiffness, yield strength and peak strength are increased by 69.6%-101.2%, 58.7%-212.6%, 48.8%-164.7%, respectively. In general, GW connection exhibits greater level of mechanical properties compared to the KW connection, while both connections offer viable alternatives since each of them showed trade-offs depending on performance requirements and practicality.